Definitions

Family allowance

Social security payments for parents/guardians of those studying in higher education. This support scheme is considered in this report only if it concerns most higher education students (e.g. family allowances available only until the child reaches the age of 18 or 19 are not considered).

Fee

All costs charged to students in higher education, including for tuition, registration, admission and certification, but excluding payments to student unions.

Full-time student

Student enrolled in an education programme whose intended study load is more than 75% of the annual study load.

Part time student

Student enrolled in an education programme whose intended study load is less than 75% of the normal full time annual study load.

International student

Incoming third country students. For non-EU MS any incoming international student.

Students on non-state subsidised places

The category is relevant for countries where there are places without fees for some students (who are state subsidised) but additional places are provided for fee-paying students (who are not state subsidised).

Students subject to social and/or economic constraints

Students, for which economic, social, cultural, geographical or health reasons, a migrant background, or any other reason may be a constraint.

Students with poor performance and/or extended length of studies

Students not completing the required ECTS credits per cycle and/or having an extended period of study compared to the standard duration of the respective cycle.

Higher education institution (HEI)

An institution providing services in the field of higher and/or tertiary education, as defined by national steering documents. Three types of higher education institutions are distinguished (the first two are covered by this report):

Public higher education institutions

Higher education institutions directly managed by a government agency/authority or by a governing body, most of whose members are either appointed by a public authority or elected by public franchise.

Government-dependent private higher education institutions

Higher education institutions directly managed by a non-governmental organisation or where the governing board consists of members not selected by a public agency but receiving 50 percent or more of their core funding from government agencies or whose teaching personnel are paid by a government agency.

Private higher education institutions

Higher education institutions which are neither public nor government-dependent private (see above).

Study cycle (in higher education)

One of the key commitments of the 1999 Bologna Declaration was the adoption of a system based on two main cycles: undergraduate and graduate. In 2003, ministers expressed a further commitment: the inclusion of the doctoral level as the third cycle in the Bologna Process. During the same year, they also invited the Bologna Follow-up Group (BFUG) to explore whether and how shorter higher education could be linked to first-cycle higher education programmes. Hence, the Bologna Process has been promoting a three-cycle structure consisting of undergraduate (first cycle), graduate (second cycle) and doctoral (third cycle) programmes, with the possibility of intermediate (short-cycle) qualifications linked to the first cycle.

This report examines fees and support in the first and the second cycle, as well as in short-cycle programmes that are recognised (by national qualifications frameworks and/or top-level steering documents) as part of the higher education system. Short-cycle programmes not recognised as higher education and doctoral-degree programmes are not covered.

Credit (ECTS)

ECTS credits express the volume of learning based on the defined learning outcomes and their associated workload. 60 ECTS credits are allocated to the learning outcomes and associated workload of a full-time academic year or its equivalent, which normally comprises a number of educational components to which credits (on the basis of the learning outcomes and workload) are allocated. ECTS credits are generally expressed in whole numbers.

Grant

Public financial support provided directly to students, which does not need to be paid back. Grants for study abroad (mobility grants) are considered in this report.

Three types of grants are distinguished:

Universal grants

Grants that do not target any specific category(ies) of students and are in principle open to all students, i.e. are 'universally available'. These grants are either provided as a flat-rate contribution (i.e. not means-tested), or their amount is calculated based on students’ income (parental income may be considered when students live with their parents/guardians).

Need-based grants

Grants awarded on the basis of financial hardship/socio-economic background of students, which is commonly evaluated based on parental income (students' income may also be considered).

Merit-based grants

Grants awarded on the basis of academic performance of students.

Loan

Repayable financial aid where the government bears a part of the costs. This can take the form of a government guarantee, where student loans are guaranteed or insured by the government against the risk of default and loss. Private loans with no public guarantee are not considered in this report.

Tax benefit

Any tax relief that is granted to parents whose child is a higher education student or to students themselves.

ISCED levels                                                                                                                                                                                                 

ISCED 0: Early childhood education

Early childhood education programmes are typically designed with a holistic approach to support children’s early cognitive, physical, social and emotional development and introduce young children to organized instruction outside of the family context. ISCED level 0 refers to early childhood programmes that have an intentional education component. These programmes aim to develop socio-emotional skills necessary for participation in school and society. They also develop some of the skills needed for academic readiness and prepare children for entry into primary education. There are two categories of ISCED level 0 programmes: early childhood educational development and pre-primary education. Early childhood educational development (ISCED level 010) has educational content designed for younger children (in the age range of 0 to 2 years). Pre-primary education (ISCED level 020) is designed for children aged at least 3 years.                                                                                                       

ISCED 1: Primary education

Primary education provides learning and educational activities typically designed to provide students with fundamental skills in reading, writing and mathematics (i.e. literacy and numeracy). It establishes a sound foundation for learning, a solid understanding of core areas of knowledge and fosters personal development, thus preparing students for lower secondary education. It provides basic learning with little specialisation, if any. This level begins between 5 and 7 years of age, is compulsory in all countries and generally lasts from four to six years.                              

ISCED 2: Lower secondary education

Programmes at ISCED level 2, or lower secondary education, typically build upon the fundamental teaching and learning processes which begin at ISCED level 1. Usually, the educational aim is to lay the foundation for lifelong learning and personal development that prepares students for further educational opportunities. Programmes at this level are usually organised around a more subject-oriented curriculum, introducing theoretical concepts across a broad range of subjects. This level typically begins around the age of 11 or 12 and usually ends at age 15 or 16, often coinciding with the end of compulsory education.                                                      

ISCED 3: Upper secondary education

Programmes at ISCED level 3, or upper secondary education, are typically designed to complete secondary education in preparation for tertiary or higher education, or to provide skills relevant to employment, or both. Programmes at this level offer students more subject-based, specialist and in-depth programmes than in lower secondary education (ISCED level 2). They are more differentiated, with an increased range of options and streams available.

This level generally begins at the end of compulsory education. The entry age is typically age 15 or 16. Entry qualifications (e.g. completion of compulsory education) or other minimum requirements are usually needed. The duration of ISCED level 3 varies from two to five years.       

ISCED 4: Post-secondary non-tertiary education

Post-secondary non-tertiary programmes build on secondary education to provide learning and educational activities to prepare students for entry into the labour market and/or tertiary education. It typically targets students who have completed upper secondary (ISCED level 3) but who want to improve their skills and increase the opportunities available to them. Programmes are often not significantly more advanced than those at upper secondary level as they typically serve to broaden rather than deepen knowledge, skills and competences.They are therefore pitched below the higher level of complexity characteristic of tertiary education.                                                                                                                   

ISCED 5: Short-cycle tertiary education

Programmes at ISCED level 5 are short-cycle tertiary education and are often designed to provide participants with professional knowledge, skills and competences. Typically, they are practice-based and occupation-specific, preparing students to enter the labour market. However, these programmes may also provide a pathway to other tertiary education programmes.

Academic tertiary education programmes below the level of a bachelor’s programme or equivalent are also classified as ISCED level 5.                      

ISCED 6: Bachelor's or equivalent level

Programmes at ISCED level 6 are at bachelor’s or equivalent level, which are often designed to provide participants with intermediate academic and/or professional knowledge, skills and competences, leading to a first degree or equivalent qualification. Programmes at this level are typically theory-based but may include practical elements; they are informed by state-of-the-art research and/or best professional practice.

ISCED 6 programmes are traditionally offered by universities and equivalent tertiary educational institutions.                                                                          

ISCED 7: Master's or equivalent level

Programmes at ISCED level 7 are at master’s or equivalent level and are often designed to provide participants with advanced academic and/or professional knowledge, skills and competences, leading to a second degree or equivalent qualification. Programmes at this level may have a substantial research component but do not lead to the award of a doctoral qualification. Typically, programmes at this level are theory-based but may include practical components and are informed by state-of-the-art research and/or best professional practice. They are traditionally offered by universities and other tertiary educational institutions.                                             

ISCED 8: Doctoral or equivalent level

Programmes at ISCED level 8 are at doctoral or equivalent level and are designed primarily to lead to an advanced research qualification. Programmes at this ISCED level are devoted to advanced study and original research and are typically offered only by research-oriented tertiary educational institutions such as universities. Doctoral programmes exist in both academic and professional fields.                                                                                   

Country codes